TDP-43 CSF Concentrations Increase Exponentially with Age in Metropolitan Mexico City Young Urbanites Highly Exposed to PM2.5 and Ultrafine Particles and Historically Showing Alzheimer and Parkinson's Hallmarks. Brain TDP-43 Pathology in MMC Residents Is Associated with High Cisternal CSF TDP-43 Concentrations.

Environmental exposures to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ultrafine particle matter (UFPM) are associated with overlapping Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) hallmark protein pathologies in young Metropolitan Mexico City (MMC) urbanites. We measured CSF concentrations of TDP-43 in 194 urban residents, including 92 MMC children aged 10.2 ± 4.7 y exposed to PM2.5 levels above the USEPA annual standard and to high UFPM and 26 low pollution controls (11.5 ± 4.4 y); 43 MMC adults (42.3 ± 15.9 y) and 14 low pollution adult controls (33.1 ± 12.0 y); and 19 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients (52.4 ± 14.1 y). TDP-43 neuropathology and cisternal CSF data from 20 subjects­15 MMC (41.1 ± 18.9 y) and 5 low pollution controls (46 ± 16.01 y)­were included. CSF TDP-43 exponentially increased with age (p < 0.0001) and it was higher for MMC residents. TDP-43 cisternal CSF levels of 572 ± 208 pg/mL in 6/15 MMC autopsy cases forecasted TDP-43 in the olfactory bulb, medulla and pons, reticular formation and motor nuclei neurons. A 16 y old with TDP-43 cisternal levels of 1030 pg/mL exhibited TDP-43 pathology and all 15 MMC autopsy cases exhibited AD and PD hallmarks. Overlapping TDP-43, AD and PD pathologies start in childhood in urbanites with high exposures to PM2.5 and UFPM. Early, sustained exposures to PM air pollution represent a high risk for developing brains and MMC UFPM emissions sources ought to be clearly identified, regulated, monitored and controlled. Prevention of deadly neurologic diseases associated with air pollution ought to be a public health priority and preventive medicine is key.

Environmentally Toxic Solid Nanoparticles in Noradrenergic and Dopaminergic Nuclei and Cerebellum of Metropolitan Mexico City Children and Young Adults with Neural Quadruple Misfolded Protein Pathologies and High Exposures to Nano Particulate Matter.

Quadruple aberrant hyperphosphorylated tau, beta-amyloid, α-synuclein and TDP-43 neuropathology and metal solid nanoparticles (NPs) are documented in the brains of children and young adults exposed to Metropolitan Mexico City (MMC) pollution. We investigated environmental NPs reaching noradrenergic and dopaminergic nuclei and the cerebellum and their associated ultrastructural alterations. Here, we identify NPs in the locus coeruleus (LC), substantia nigrae (SN) and cerebellum by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) in 197 samples from 179 MMC residents, aged 25.9 ± 9.2 years and seven older adults aged 63 ± 14.5 years. Fe, Ti, Hg, W, Al and Zn spherical and acicular NPs were identified in the SN, LC and cerebellar neural and vascular mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, neuromelanin, heterochromatin and nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) along with early and progressive neurovascular damage and cerebellar endothelial erythrophagocytosis. Strikingly, FeNPs 4 ± 1 nm and Hg NPs 8 ± 2 nm were seen predominantly in the LC and SN. Nanoparticles could serve as a common denominator for misfolded proteins and could play a role in altering and obstructing NPCs. The NPs/carbon monoxide correlation is potentially useful for evaluating early neurodegeneration risk in urbanites. Early life NP exposures pose high risk to brains for development of lethal neurologic outcomes. NP emissions sources ought to be clearly recognized, regulated, and monitored; future generations are at stake.

Environmental Fe, Ti, Al, Cu, Hg, Bi, and Si Nanoparticles in the Atrioventricular Conduction Axis and the Associated Ultrastructural Damage in Young Urbanites: Cardiac Arrhythmias Caused by Anthropogenic, Industrial, E-Waste, and Indoor Nanoparticles.

Air pollution exposure is a risk factor for arrhythmia. The atrioventricular (AV) conduction axis is key for the passage of electrical signals to ventricles. We investigated whether environmental nanoparticles (NPs) reach the AV axis and whether they are associated with ultrastructural cell damage. Here, we demonstrate the detection of the shape, size, and composition of NPs by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX) in 10 subjects from Metropolitan Mexico City (MMC) with a mean age of 25.3 ± 5.9 and a 71-year-old subject without cardiac pathology. We found that in every case, Fe, Ti, Al, Hg, Cu, Bi, and/or Si spherical or acicular NPs with a mean size of 36 ± 17 nm were present in the AV axis in situ, freely and as conglomerates, within the mitochondria, sarcomeres, lysosomes, lipofuscin, and/or intercalated disks and gap junctions of Purkinje and transitional cells, telocytes, macrophages, endothelium, and adjacent atrial and ventricular fibers. Erythrocytes were found to transfer NPs to the endothelium. Purkinje fibers with increased lysosomal activity and totally disordered myofilaments and fragmented Z-disks exhibited NP conglomerates in association with gap junctions and intercalated disks. AV conduction axis pathology caused by environmental NPs is a plausible and modifiable risk factor for understanding common arrhythmias and reentrant tachycardia. Anthropogenic, industrial, e-waste, and indoor NPs reach pacemaker regions, thereby increasing potential mechanisms that disrupt the electrical impulse pathways of the heart. The cardiotoxic, oxidative, and abnormal electric performance effects of NPs in pacemaker locations warrant extensive research. Cardiac arrhythmias associated with nanoparticle effects could be preventable.

Environmental Nanoparticles, SARS-CoV-2 Brain Involvement, and Potential Acceleration of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Diseases in Young Urbanites Exposed to Air Pollution.

Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases (AD, PD) have a pediatric and young adult onset in Metropolitan Mexico City (MMC). The SARS-CoV-2 neurotropic RNA virus is triggering neurological complications and deep concern regarding acceleration of neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative processes already in progress. This review, based on our MMC experience, will discuss two major issues: 1) why residents chronically exposed to air pollution are likely to be more susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 systemic and brain effects and 2) why young people with AD and PD already in progress will accelerate neurodegenerative processes. Secondary mental consequences of social distancing and isolation, fear, financial insecurity, violence, poor health support, and lack of understanding of the complex crisis are expected in MMC residents infected or free of SARS-CoV-2. MMC residents with pre-SARS-CoV-2 accumulation of misfolded proteins diagnostic of AD and PD and metal-rich, magnetic nanoparticles damaging key neural organelles are an ideal host for neurotropic SARS-CoV-2 RNA virus invading the body through the same portals damaged by nanoparticles: nasal olfactory epithelium, the gastrointestinal tract, and the alveolar-capillary portal. We urgently need MMC multicenter retrospective-prospective neurological and psychiatric population follow-up and intervention strategies in place in case of acceleration of neurodegenerative processes, increased risk of suicide, and mental disease worsening. Identification of vulnerable populations and continuous effort to lower air pollution ought to be critical steps.

Hallmarks of Alzheimer disease are evolving relentlessly in Metropolitan Mexico City infants, children and young adults. APOE4 carriers have higher suicide risk and higher odds of reaching NFT stage V at ≤ 40 years of age.

Exposures to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone (O3) above USEPA standards are associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk. Metropolitan Mexico City (MMC) residents have life time exposures to PM2.5 and O3 above USEPA standards. We investigated AD intra and extracellular protein aggregates and ultrastructural neurovascular pathology in 203 MMC residents age 25.36 ±â€¯9.23 y. Immunohistochemical methods were used to identify AT8 hyperphosphorilated tau (Htau) and 4G8 (amyloid ß 17-24). Primary outcomes: staging of Htau and amyloid, per decade and cumulative PM2.5 (CPM2.5) above standard. Apolipoprotein E allele 4 (APOE4), age and cause of death were secondary outcomes. Subcortical pretangle stage b was identified in an 11month old baby. Cortical tau pre-tangles, neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) Stages I-II, amyloid phases 1-2, Htau in substantia nigrae, auditory, oculomotor, trigeminal and autonomic systems were identified by the 2nd decade. Progression to NFT stages III-V was present in 24.8% of 30-40 y old subjects. APOE4 carriers have 4.92 times higher suicide odds (p = 0.0006), and 23.6 times higher odds of NFT V (p < 0.0001) v APOE4 non-carriers having similar CPM2.5 exposure and age. Age (p = 0.0062) and CPM2.5 (p = 0.0178) were significant for developing NFT V. Combustion-derived nanoparticles were associated with early and progressive damage to the neurovascular unit. Alzheimer's disease starting in the brainstem of young children and affecting 99.5% of young urbanites is a serious health crisis. Air pollution control should be prioritised. Childhood relentless Htau makes a fundamental target for neuroprotective interventions and the first two decades are critical. We recommend the concept of preclinical AD be revised and emphasize the need to define paediatric environmental, nutritional, metabolic and genetic risk factor interactions of paramount importance to prevent AD. AD evolving from childhood is threating the wellbeing of our children and future generations.

The impact of environmental metals in young urbanites' brains.

Air pollution exposures are linked to cognitive and olfaction deficits, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration including frontal hyperphosphorylated tau and diffuse amyloid plaques in Mexico City children and young adults. Mexico City residents are chronically exposed to fine particulate matter (PM(2.5)) concentrations (containing toxic combustion and industrial metals) above the annual standard (15 µg/m(3)) and to contaminated water and soil. Here, we sought to address the brain-region-specific effects of metals and key neuroinflammatory and DNA repair responses in two air pollution targets: frontal lobe and olfactory bulb from 12 controls vs. 47 Mexico City children and young adults average age 33.06±4.8 SE years. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (metal analysis) and real time PCR (for COX2, IL1ß and DNA repair genes) in target tissues. Mexico City residents had higher concentrations of metals associated with PM: manganese (p=0.003), nickel and chromium (p=0.02) along with higher frontal COX2 mRNA (p=0.008) and IL1ß (p=0.0002) and COX2 (p=0.005) olfactory bulb indicating neuroinflammation. Frontal metals correlated with olfactory bulb DNA repair genes and with frontal and hippocampal inflammatory genes. Frontal manganese, cobalt and selenium increased with age in exposed subjects. Together, these findings suggest PM-metal neurotoxicity causes brain damage in young urbanites, the olfactory bulb is a target of air pollution and participates in the neuroinflammatory response and since metal concentrations vary significantly in Mexico City urban sub-areas, place of residency has to be integrated with the risk for CNS detrimental effects particularly in children.

Intra-city Differences in Cardiac Expression of Inflammatory Genes and Inflammasomes in Young Urbanites: A Pilot Study.

Southwest Mexico City (SWMC) air pollution is characterized by high concentrations of ozone and particulate matter < 10 µm (PM(10)) containing lipopolysaccharides while in the North PM(2.5) is high. These intra-city differences are likely accounting for higher CD14 and IL-1ß in SWMC v NMC mice myocardial expression. This pilot study was designed to investigate whether similar intra-city differences exist in the levels of myocardial inflammatory genes in young people. Inflammatory mediator genes and inflammasome arrays were measured in right and left autopsy ventricles of 6 southwest/15 north (18.5 ± 2.6 years) MC residents after fatal sudden accidental deaths. There was a significant S v N right ventricle up-regulation of IL-1ß (p=0.008), TNF-α (p=0.001), IL-10 (p=0.001), and CD14 (p=0.002), and a left ventricle difference in TNF-α (p=0.007), and IL-10 (p=0.02). SW right ventricles had significant up-regulation of NLRC1, NLRP3 and of 29/84 inflammasome genes, including NOD factors and caspases. There was significant degranulation of mast cells both in myocardium and epicardial nerve fibers. Differential expression of key inflammatory myocardial genes and inflammasomes are influenced by the location of residence. Myocardial inflammation and inflammasome activation in young hearts is a plausible pathway of heart injury in urbanites and adverse effects on the cardiovascular system are expected.

Neuroinflammation, hyperphosphorylated tau, diffuse amyloid plaques, and down-regulation of the cellular prion protein in air pollution exposed children and young adults.

Air pollution exposures have been linked to neuroinflammation and neuropathology. Autopsy samples of the frontal cortex from control (n = 8) and pollution-exposed (n = 35) children and young adults were analyzed by RT-PCR (n = 43) and microarray analysis (n = 12) for gene expression changes in oxidative stress, DNA damage signaling, NFκB signaling, inflammation, and neurodegeneration pathways. The effect of apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype on the presence of protein aggregates associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology was also explored. Exposed urbanites displayed differential (>2-fold) regulation of 134 genes. Forty percent exhibited tau hyperphosphorylation with pre-tangle material and 51% had amyloid-ß (Aß) diffuse plaques compared with 0% in controls. APOE4 carriers had greater hyperphosphorylated tau and diffuse Aß plaques versus E3 carriers (Q = 7.82, p = 0.005). Upregulated gene network clusters included IL1, NFκB, TNF, IFN, and TLRs. A 15-fold frontal down-regulation of the prion-related protein (PrP(C)) was seen in highly exposed subjects. The down-regulation of the PrP(C) is critical given its important roles for neuroprotection, neurodegeneration, and mood disorder states. Elevation of indices of neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, down-regulation of the PrP(C) and AD-associated pathology are present in young megacity residents. The inducible regulation of gene expression suggests they are evolving different mechanisms in an attempt to cope with the constant state of inflammation and oxidative stress related to their environmental exposures. Together, these data support a role for air pollution in CNS damage and its impact upon the developing brain and the potential etiology of AD and mood disorders.

Air pollution is associated with brainstem auditory nuclei pathology and delayed brainstem auditory evoked potentials.

We assessed brainstem inflammation in children exposed to air pollutants by comparing brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEPs) and blood inflammatory markers in children age 96.3±8.5 months from highly polluted (n=34) versus a low polluted city (n=17). The brainstems of nine children with accidental deaths were also examined. Children from the highly polluted environment had significant delays in wave III (t(50)=17.038; p<0.0001) and wave V (t(50)=19.730; p<0.0001) but no delay in wave I (p=0.548). They also had significantly longer latencies than controls for interwave intervals I-III, III-V, and I-V (all t(50)>7.501; p<0.0001), consisting with delayed central conduction time of brainstem neural transmission. Highly exposed children showed significant evidence of inflammatory markers and their auditory and vestibular nuclei accumulated α synuclein and/or ß amyloid(1-42). Medial superior olive neurons, critically involved in BAEPs, displayed significant pathology. Children's exposure to urban air pollution increases their risk for auditory and vestibular impairment.

Urban air pollution: influences on olfactory function and pathology in exposed children and young adults.

Mexico City (MC) residents are exposed to severe air pollution and exhibit olfactory bulb inflammation. We compared the olfactory function of individuals living under conditions of extreme air pollution to that of controls from a relatively clean environment and explore associations between olfaction scores, apolipoprotein E (APOE) status, and pollution exposure. The olfactory bulbs (OBs) of 35 MC and 9 controls 20.8+/-8.5 years were assessed by light and electron microscopy. The University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT) was administered to 62 MC/25 controls 21.2+/-2.7 years. MC subjects had significantly lower UPSIT scores: 34.24+/-0.42 versus controls 35.76+/-0.40, p=0.03. Olfaction deficits were present in 35.5% MC and 12% of controls. MC APOE epsilon 4 carriers failed 2.4+/-0.54 items in the 10-item smell identification scale from the UPSIT related to Alzheimer's disease, while APOE 2/3 and 3/3 subjects failed 1.36+/-0.16 items, p=0.01. MC residents exhibited OB endothelial hyperplasia, neuronal accumulation of particles (2/35), and immunoreactivity to beta amyloid betaA(42) (29/35) and/or alpha-synuclein (4/35) in neurons, glial cells and/or blood vessels. Ultrafine particles were present in OBs endothelial cytoplasm and basement membranes. Control OBs were unremarkable. Air pollution exposure is associated with olfactory dysfunction and OB pathology, APOE 4 may confer greater susceptibility to such abnormalities, and ultrafine particles could play a key role in the OB pathology. This study contributes to our understanding of the influences of air pollution on olfaction and its potential contribution to neurodegeneration.

Epidemiology of bone tumors in Mexico City: retrospective clinicopathologic study of 566 patients at a referral institution.

A retrospective analysis of all bone tumors accessioned at a large referral center (Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitacion) in Mexico City between 2000 and 2005 is presented. A total of 6216 biopsies and surgical resection specimens were reviewed during this period, of which 566 corresponded to bone tumors. Benign bone tumors accounted for 71.6% of cases and malignant bone tumors for 28.4%. The tumors affected men in 53.7% of cases and women in 46.3% of cases, with an average age at presentation of 25 years. The femur was the most common location of the tumors (39.9%), followed by the tibia (17.7%) and humerus (11.8%). The commonest malignant bone tumors were osteosarcoma (46.6%) and chondrosarcoma (8.7%). Of malignant bone tumors, 18.6% corresponded to metastases of carcinomas from internal organs and 8.1% were multiple myeloma. The most common benign bone tumor was osteochondroma (43.7%) followed by giant cell tumor of bone (14.6%) and enchondroma (10.1%). The age distribution showed a peak in children and adolescents comprised predominantly of benign lesions and a second peak in young adults that corresponded to malignant bone tumors (principally osteosarcoma). Malignant bone tumors most often involved the femur, vertebra, and tibia. Our results parallel the findings previously reported in the world literature and show a similar distribution and epidemiology as in other developed and underdeveloped countries. Geographic location does not appear to represent a risk factor for any particular type of bone tumor and does not affect the age distribution, location, or histopathologic type of the lesions.

Long-term air pollution exposure is associated with neuroinflammation, an altered innate immune response, disruption of the blood-brain barrier, ultrafine particulate deposition, and accumulation of amyloid beta-42 and alpha-synuclein in children and young adults.

Air pollution is a serious environmental problem. We investigated whether residency in cities with high air pollution is associated with neuroinflammation/neurodegeneration in healthy children and young adults who died suddenly. We measured mRNA cyclooxygenase-2, interleukin-1beta, and CD14 in target brain regions from low (n = 12) or highly exposed residents (n = 35) aged 25.1 +/- 1.5 years. Upregulation of cyclooxygenase-2, interleukin-1beta, and CD14 in olfactory bulb, frontal cortex, substantia nigrae and vagus nerves; disruption of the blood-brain barrier; endothelial activation, oxidative stress, and inflammatory cell trafficking were seen in highly exposed subjects. Amyloid beta42 (Abeta42) immunoreactivity was observed in 58.8% of apolipoprotein E (APOE) 3/3 < 25 y, and 100% of the APOE 4 subjects, whereas alpha-synuclein was seen in 23.5% of < 25 y subjects. Particulate material (PM) was seen in olfactory bulb neurons, and PM < 100 nm were observed in intraluminal erythrocytes from lung, frontal, and trigeminal ganglia capillaries. Exposure to air pollution causes neuroinflammation, an altered brain innate immune response, and accumulation of Abeta42 and alpha-synuclein starting in childhood. Exposure to air pollution should be considered a risk factor for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, and carriers of the APOE 4 allele could have a higher risk of developing Alzheimer's disease if they reside in a polluted environment.

Brain inflammation and Alzheimer's-like pathology in individuals exposed to severe air pollution.

Air pollution is a complex mixture of gases (e.g., ozone), particulate matter, and organic compounds present in outdoor and indoor air. Dogs exposed to severe air pollution exhibit chronic inflammation and acceleration of Alzheimer's-like pathology, suggesting that the brain is adversely affected by pollutants. We investigated whether residency in cities with high levels of air pollution is associated with human brain inflammation. Expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2), an inflammatory mediator, and accumulation of the 42-amino acid form of beta-amyloid (Abeta42), a cause of neuronal dysfunction, were measured in autopsy brain tissues of cognitively and neurologically intact lifelong residents of cities having low (n:9) or high (n:10) levels of air pollution. Genomic DNA apurinic/apyrimidinic sites, nuclear factor-kappaB activation and apolipoprotein E genotype were also evaluated. Residents of cities with severe air pollution had significantly higher COX2 expression in frontal cortex and hippocampus and greater neuronal and astrocytic accumulation of Abeta42 compared to residents in low air pollution cities. Increased COX2 expression and Abeta42 accumulation were also observed in the olfactory bulb. These findings suggest that exposure to severe air pollution is associated with brain inflammation and Abeta42 accumulation, two causes of neuronal dysfunction that precede the appearance of neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease.

Expresión de catepsina D en carcinoma mamario y sus correlaciones clínicas e histopatológicas / Cathepsin D expression in breast cancer and its correlations with clinical and histopathological parameters

Antecedentes. La catepsina D es una proteasa lisosomal que se puede sobrexpresar en cáncer mamario. Varios estudios hechos en citosol de tejido tumoral demuestran que los niveles elevados de catepsina D se asocian con pronóstico desfavorable en pacientes con cáncer mamario pero en estudios realizados por inmunohistoquímica, los resultados no son concluyentes. Objetivo. Evaluar si catepsina D, medida por técnica inmunohistoquímica con un anticuerpo policlonal, puede ser considerada como factor pronóstico en el cáncer de mama. Pacientes y métodos. Se realizó en 68 muestras tumorales que correspondían a pacientes con cáncer mamario en etapas clínicas I-IV, tratadas en el Instituto Nacional de Cancerología durante los años 1985 y 1986. Resultados. Treinta y cinco de las 68 pacientes (51 por ciento) presentaron tinción positiva intensa para catepsina D, 19 (28 por ciento) tuvieron tinción leve y 14 (21 por ciento) fueron negativas. En 10 de las pacientes con tinción leve existieron artificios por defectos en la fijación del tejido. La expresión de catepsina D no tuvo valor pronóstico ni se encontró asociación de la catepsiana D con otros factores pronósticos clínicos e histopatológicos conocidos. Conclusión. La catepsina D determinada por inmunohistoquímica no tuvo valor pronóstico en el cáncer de mama

Langerhans cell histiocytosis associated with myelofibrosis and polyclonal gammopathy / Langherhans cell histiocytosis associated with myelofibrosis and polyclonal gammopathy

Diversos informes en la literatura han documentado alteraciones inmunológicas distintivas en pacientes con histiocitosis de células de Langerhans (HCL). Nosotros presentamos un caso de HCL en una mujer de 62 años de edad con lesión en cráneo, mielofribrosis y gamopatía policlonal asociadas a enfermedad activa. La patogenesis de esta asociación es incierta; sin embargo, hay evidencia de que esta alteración es manifestación de una pobre regulación en la activación de células de Langerhans con efecto en determinados controles inmunológicos

Sarcoma osteogénico intracortical tratado con resección en bloque y transportación ósea: reporte de un caso / Intracortical osteosarcoma treated with in block resection and osseous transportation: a case report

Se informa de un paciente de 44 años de edad con diagnóstico de osteosarcoma intracortical localizado en la diáfisis de la tibia derecha. Fue tratado mediante resección en bloque y transportación ósea, con fines curativos. El paciente está vivo a 52 meses de seguimiento sin evidencia de actividad tumoral local ni metastásica. Se propone esta modalidad quirúrgica conservadora para otros casos similares.

Adenoma tubulo-papilar y displasia severa de la vesícula biliar / Tubulo-papillary adenoma and severe dysplasia o fthe gall bladder

Se presenta un caso de adenoma túbulo-papilar y displasis severa de la vesícula biliar en una mujer de 65 años de edad con colecistitis litiasica. La lesión adenomatosa túbulo-papilar estaba localizada en el cuello vesicular y midió 15 x 16 mm. Histológicamente las glándulas tubulares del adenoma erab similares a las glándulas pilóricas y mostraron metaplasia intestinal con células columnares, células de Paneth y células endócrinas que contenían serotonina. Las células columnares mostraron cambios displásicos severos. En algunas areoas las atipias nucleares fueron similares a las descritas en carcinoma in situ. La inmunohistoquímica fué negativa para antígeno carcinoembrionario y otras hormonas peptídicas. Se discute la relación entre adenoma y carcinoma de la vesícula biliar.